Sneferu (snfr-wj “He has perfected me”, from Ḥr-nb-mꜣꜥt-snfr-wj “Horus, Lord of Maat, has perfected me”, also read Snefru or Snofru), well known under his Hellenized name Soris (Koinē Greek: Σῶρις by Manetho), was the founding pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt during the Old Kingdom. Estimates of his reign vary; for instance, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt suggests a reign from around 2613 to 2589 BC, a power of 24 years, Rolf Krauss suggests a 30-year rule, and Rainer Stadelmann a 48-year reign. He built at least three pyramids that survive today and introduced significant innovations in the design and construction of pyramids.
Reign length
The 24-year Turin Canon figure for Sneferu’s reign is considered today to be an underestimate since this king’s highest-known date is an inscription discovered at the Red Pyramid of Dahshur and mentioning Sneferu’s 24th cattle count, corresponding to at least 24 whole years. Sneferu, however, was known to have at least three years after the cattle count dates: his years after the 10th, the 13th and the 18th count are attested at his Meidum pyramid. This would mean that Sneferu ruled Egypt for a minimum of 27 years.
However, in the Palermo Stone, recto six at the bottom of the fragment shows the year of the 7th count of Sneferu, while recto seven on the same following row shows the year of the 8th count of Sneferu. Significantly, there is a primarily intact column for Sneferu in recto five, which also mentions events in this king’s reign in a specific year but does not mention the previous (6th) year. This column must, therefore, be dated to the year after the 6th count of Sneferu. Hence, Sneferu’s reign would be a minimum of 28 years. (There are fewer years after the count dates known for Sneferu compared to the year of the count or census dates.) since there are many periods in Sneferu’s reigns for which Egyptologists have few dates—only the years of the 2nd, 7th, 8th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 23rd and 24th count are known for Sneferu before one considers the years after his cattle counts. This pharaoh is most likely to have had a reign of over 30 years to manage to build three pyramids in his long rule but not 48 years since the cattle count was not regularly biannual during his kingship.
Family and succession
Manetho was an Egyptian priest living in the third century BC who categorised the pharaohs of dynastic Egypt into thirty-one dynasties. Sneferu was the first king of the Fourth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, who, according to Manetho, reigned for 24 years (2613–2589 BC). Though his schematic has its flaws, nevertheless, modern scholars conventionally follow his method of grouping. The Papyrus Prisse, a Middle Kingdom source, supports that King Huni was Sneferu’s predecessor. It states that “the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Huni, came to the landing-place (i.e., died), and the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Sneferu, was raised as a beneficent king in this entire land….”
Aside from Sneferu’s succession, we learn from this above text that later generations considered him a “beneficent” ruler. This idea may stem from the etymology of the king’s name, for it can be interpreted as the infinitive “to make beautiful”. Whether Huni was Sneferu’s father, the Cairo Annals Stone denotes that his mother may have been a woman named Meresankh.
Hetepheres I was Sneferu’s principal wife and the mother of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid on the Giza Plateau.
Children
Sons of Sneferu:
- Khufu – son of Sneferu and Hetepheres I, successor to Sneferu.
- Ankhhaf – King’s Son of his Body, King’s vizier (under his nephew Khafre). Ankhhaf was married to the King’s Daughter Hetepheres. He was buried in G 7510. A famous bust of Ankhhaf is now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
- Kanefer – King’s eldest son and Son of his Body. Second Vizier of Sneferu, who continued to serve under Khufu. He was buried in tomb 28 in Dashur.
- Nefermaat I – eldest son of Sneferu and husband of Itet. Titles included: Priest of Bastet, Hereditary Prince, Guardian of Nekhen, and great one of the five at the house of Thoth. First Vizier of Sneferu.
- Netjeraperef, buried in Dashur.
- Rahotep – King’s Son of his Body, High Priest of Re in Heliopolis. Owner of the famous statues now in the Cairo Museum. He was buried in Meidum with his wife, Nofret.
- Ranefer. Buried in Meidum.
- Iynefer I. Buried in Dashur.
Daughters of Sneferu:
- Hetepheres A was married to Ankhhaf. She was named after her mother, Queen Hetepheres.
- Nefertkau I – King’s Daughter of his Body, eldest daughter of Sneferu. Buried in mastaba G 7050 at Giza. Her tomb dates to the time of Khafra. In the tomb Sneferu is mentioned as well as Nefertkau’s son Nefermaat II and her grandson Sneferukhaf.
- Nefertnesu – King’s daughter, God’s Daughter. He had a son named Kaemqed, known for a false door. He was buried in Dashur during the 5th dynasty.
- Meritites I, Great of Sceptre and King’s Wife, was married to her brother Khufu.
- Henutsen – King’s daughter, was married to Khufu.
Building projects
The most well-known monuments from Sneferu’s reign are the three pyramids he is considered to have built. In Dahshur: the Bent Pyramid, Red Pyramid, and Meidum pyramid. Under Sneferu, a significant evolution in monumental pyramid structures would lead to Khufu’s Great Pyramid, which would be seen as the pinnacle of the Egyptian Old Kingdom’s majesty and splendour, and as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Pyramid at Meidum
The first of Sneferu’s massive undertakings is the Pyramid at Meidum. There is some debate among scholars about Sneferu’s claim to the Meidum pyramid, and many credits its origin to King Huni. Nonetheless, the pyramid is a remarkable example of the progression of technology and ideology surrounding the king’s burial site. The immense stone structure serves as physical testimony to the transition from the stepped pyramid structure to a “true” pyramid structure. Archaeological investigations of the pyramid show that it was first conceived as a seven-stepped structure, built similarly to the Djoser complex at Saqqara. Modifications later were made to add another platform, and at an even later stage, limestone facing was added to create the smooth, angled finish characteristic of a “true” pyramid. Complete with a descending northern passage, two underground chambers, and a burial vault, the pyramid mainly follows the conventions of previous tombs in most aspects other than one: instead of being situated underneath the colossal structure, the burial chamber is built directly within the main body albeit very near ground level.
Bent Pyramid
The Bent Pyramid, also known as the Rhomboidal or Blunted Pyramid, attests to an even more significant increase in architectural innovations. As the name suggests, the inclination angle changes from 55° to about 43° in the upper levels of the pyramid. It is likely that the pyramid initially was not designed to be built this way but was modified during construction due to unstable accretion layers. As a means of stabilising the structure, the top layers were laid horizontally, marking the abandonment of the step pyramid concept. The internal components of the Rhomboidal pyramid have also evolved. There are two entrances, one from the north and another from the west. The subterranean chambers are much larger and distinguished by corbel walls and ceilings with more complex diagonal portcullis systems. J.P Lepre asserts:
It is apparent that with the interior design of the Bent Pyramid, the architect was groping and experimenting, taking maximum advantage of the enormous volume of the monument (50 million cubic feet), the largest pyramid constructed to that date.
Satellite pyramid
The satellite pyramid complementing Sneferu’s Bent Pyramid introduces more change in the architecture of the time when the passageway is built ascending westward (as opposed to the conventionally descending northward direction of the passages of previously built pyramids) towards the burial chambers.
Egypt decided to open the Bent Pyramid for tourism in July 2019 for the first time since 1965. Tourists can reach two 4600-year-old chambers through a 79-meter narrow tunnel built from the northern entrance of the pyramid. 18-meter-high “side pyramid“, which is assumed that have been constructed for Sneferu’s wife Hetepheres, will also be accessible. It is the first time this adjacent pyramid opened to the public after its excavation in 1956.
With the increase of innovation in Sneferu’s building projects, one expects that his last pyramid, the Red Pyramid, will show the most extraordinary complexity and change in architecture. Upon first glance, one may be disappointed seeing that the Red Pyramid’s construction is seemingly more straightforward than its predecessor. Lepre points out that some of the previous pyramids’ internal innovations seem to be missing in the king’s last monument. Although the chambers and burial vaults are all present in the monument’s main body, no ascending passageway has been excavated, nor is there evidence of a western entrance or diagonal portcullis. Although the absence of these features has dissuaded many archaeologists from further studying the Red Pyramid, Lepre is convinced that secret chambers are waiting to be uncovered within the stone superstructure. Considering that the remains of King Sneferu have not yet been found, it still may be possible that his sarcophagus and mummy lie hidden in his mysterious last structure. Lepre claims: “the Red pyramid remains one of the chief pyramids that may contain secret chambers, not the least of which may be the true burial chamber of King Sneferu himself.” Whether or not this conjecture is true is left to modern archaeologists to determine.
Sneferu’s architectural innovations catalyzed for later pyramid builders to build. The first king of the fourth dynasty set a challenging precedent for his successors to match, and only Khufu’s Great Pyramid can rival Sneferu’s accomplishments. As time progressed and ideology changed in Ancient Egypt, the monuments of the kings decreased significantly in size. As the Pyramid of Menkaure is only a fraction of the size of the previous pyramids, the focus of Egyptian ideology might have shifted from the worship of the king to the direct worship of the sun god, Ra.
Foreign relations
To enable Sneferu to undertake such massive building projects, he would have had to secure an extensive store of labour and materials. According to Guillemette Andreu, this is where the king’s foreign policy played a large part. Sneferu’s conquests into Libya and Nubia served two purposes: the first goal was to establish an extensive labour force, and the second goal was to gain access to the raw materials and unique products available in these countries. This is alluded to in the Palermo Stone:
“Sneferu. Year …
The building of Tuataua ships of mer wood
of a hundred capacity, and 60 royal boats of sixteen power.
Raid in the Land of the Blacks and the bringing in of seven thousand
prisoners, men and women, and twenty thousand cattle, sheep, and
goats…
The bringing of forty ships of cedar wood …”
According to this inscription, Sneferu could capture many people from other nations, make them his prisoners and then add them to his labour force. During his raids into Nubia and Libya, he also captured cattle to sustain his massive labour force. Such incursions must have been incredibly devastating to the populations of the raided countries, and it is suggested that the campaigns into Nubia may have contributed to the dissemination of the A-Group culture of that region.
Sneferu’s military efforts in ancient Libya led to the capture of 11,000 prisoners and 13,100 head of cattle. Aside from the extensive import of cedar (most likely from Lebanon) described above, there is evidence of activity in the turquoise mines on the Sinai Peninsula. There would also have been large-scale quarrying projects to provide Sneferu with the stone he needed for his pyramids.
Sneferu’s ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first known instance of a ship being referred to by name.
